Helen Keller Quotes That Inspire

Although Helen Keller lost her sight and hearing at an early age, she lived a long and productive life as an author and activist. She was a pacifist during World War I and a socialist, an advocate for womens rights and a member of the fledgling American Civil Liberties Union. Helen Keller traveled to 35 countries during her lifetime to support the rights of the blind. Her indomitable spirit saw her through her handicap. Her words speak of the wisdom and strength that was the essence of her life. Helen Kellers Thoughts on Optimism Keep your face to the sunshine and you cannot see the shadows. Optimism is the faith that leads to achievement. Nothing can be done without hope and confidence. Believe. No pessimist ever discovered the secrets of the stars or sailed to an uncharted land or opened a new heaven to the human spirit. What I am looking for is not out there; it is in me. When one door of happiness closes, another opens; but often we look so long at the closed door that we do not see the one which has been opened for us. Be of good cheer. Do not think of todays failures, but of the success that may come tomorrow. You have set yourself a difficult task, but you will succeed if you  persevere, and  you will find a joy in overcoming obstacles. Never bend your head. Always hold it high. Look the world right in the eye. The Importance of Faith Faith is the strength by which a shattered world shall emerge into the light. I believe in the immortality of the soul because I have within me immortal longings. It gives me a deep, comforting sense that things seen are temporal and things unseen are eternal. About Ambition It is for us to pray not for tasks equal to our powers, but for powers equal to our tasks, to go forward with a great desire forever beating at the door of our hearts as we travel toward our distant goal. One can never consent to creep when one feels an impulse to soar. The Joy of Companionship Walking with a friend in the dark is better than walking alone in the light. Relationships are like Rome—difficult to start out, incredible during the prosperity of the golden age, and unbearable during the fall. Then, a new kingdom will come along and the whole process will repeat itself until you come across a kingdom like Egypt ... that  thrives  and continues to flourish. This kingdom will become your best friend, your soul mate and your love. Our Ability We can do anything we want if we stick to it long enough. I am only  one; but  still, I am one. I cannot do everything, but  still, I can do something. I will not refuse to do something I can do. I long to accomplish a great and noble task, but it is my chief duty to accomplish small tasks as if they were great and noble. When we do the best we can, we never know what miracle is wrought in our life or in the life of another. Thoughts on Life The best and most beautiful things in life cannot be seen, not touched, but are felt in the heart. We would never learn to be brave and patient if there were only joy in the world. What we have once enjoyed we can never lose. All that we love deeply becomes a part of us. Life is a succession of lessons which must be lived to be understood. Life is an exciting business, and most exciting when it is lived for others. Believe, when you are most unhappy, that there is something for you to do in the world. So long as you can sweeten anothers pain, life is not in vain. True happiness ... is not attained through self-gratification, but through fidelity to a worthy purpose. The Beauty of Hope Once I knew only darkness and stillness. My life was without past or future. But a little word from the fingers of another fell into my hand that clutched at emptiness and my heart leaped to the rapture of living. Although the world is full of suffering, it is full also of the overcoming of it. Alone we can do so little; together we can do so much. To keep our faces toward change, and behave like free spirits in the presence of fate, is strength undefeatable. The Challenges We Face The marvelous richness of human experience would lose something of rewarding joy if there were no limitations to overcome. The hilltop hour would not be half so wonderful if there were no dark valleys to traverse. Character cannot be developed in ease and quiet. Only through experiences of trial and suffering can the soul be strengthened, vision cleared, ambition inspired and success achieved. I seldom think about my limitations, and they never make me sad. Perhaps there is just a touch of yearning at times; but it is vague, like a breeze among flowers. Self-pity is our worst enemy and if we yield to it, we can never do anything wise in the world. The most pathetic person in the world is someone who has sight but has no vision. Random Musings Our democracy is but a name. We vote. What does that mean? It means that we choose between two bodies of real—though not avowed—autocrats. We choose between Tweedledum and Tweedledee. People do not like to think. If one thinks, one must reach conclusions. Conclusions are not always pleasant. Science may have found a cure for most evils; but it has found no remedy for the worst of them all—the apathy of human beings. It is wonderful how much time good people spend fighting the devil. If they would only expend the same amount of energy loving their fellow men, the devil would die in his own tracks of ennui. Security is mostly a superstition. It does not exist in nature, nor do the children of men as a whole experience it. Avoiding danger is no safer in the long run than outright exposure. Life is either a daring  adventure  or nothing. Knowledge is love and light and vision. Toleration is the greatest gift of mind; it requires the same effort of the brain that it takes to balance oneself on a bicycle.

National Security And Homeland Security - 1788 Words

Intelligence deals with the process in which specific types of information has been collected, analyzed, refined and provided to the policy makers, so that it will be useful to them in decisions making about potential threats to national security and homeland security (Lowenthal, 2014, p. 10). U.S Government has been benefiting from Intelligence information since the beginning of the country, despite the fact that many people thought that U.S intelligence emanated as a result of cold war (Federation of American Scientists, 1996). For instance, the Office of Naval Intelligence was created in March 1882 followed by the formation of the Military Intelligence Division three years later, charged to collect foreign and domestic military data (Federation of American Scientists, 1996). Other intelligence units in the early republic include the first U.S. Army signals intelligence (MI-8) formed in 1917; the Justice Department s Bureau of Investigation created in 1908. However, U. S Intelligence witnessed tremendous transformation due to events that happens as results of intelligence failures. Chiefly among them was the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. The aftermath of this lead to the creation of the National Intelligence Authority, a Central Intelligence Group in 1946; and subsequently enacted into law the National Security Act of 1947 that served as the organizational basis for the US conduct of the Cold War. The 1947 act also established the CentralShow MoreRelatedThe National Department Of Homeland Security1386 Words   |  6 Pagesimportantly; decide which natural disasters/emergencies to focus a majority of their resources on. Unfortunately for FEMA all of that was lost with the creation of The Department of Homeland Security (DHS). 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This plan targets a wide audience, including public and private critical infrastructure owners and administrators. Managing risks through identifying, deterring, and disrupting threats to critical infrastructure is the direct focus of this plan. The ability of an organization to reduce the impact of a threat that has occurred and reducing the impact of one that may occur is essentialRead MoreOverview of the US Department of Homeland Security925 Words   |  4 PagesDepartment of Homeland Security: The U.S. Department of Homeland Security was formed more than a decade ago with a very significant mission of safeguarding Americas homeland from hazards, threats, and national disasters. This department conducts its mission through securing the countrys borders, preventing terror attacks, and responding to incidents or threats to its citizens (Miller, n.d.). Generally, the most important roles of the Department of Homeland Security are to lead a concerted national effortRead MoreHomeland Security And Homeland Defense1390 Words   |  6 Pages Many people think homeland security and homeland defense are the same thing, but that is incorrect. Both have played a role in keeping America safe, but after 9/11 that role expanded greatly. The U.S. was determined to prevent another catastrophic attack from unfolding while searching the globe for those responsible. In a world constantly evolving, our enemies and their tactics evolve with it. To effectively combat the incredible amount of threats America faces, many federal entities and missionRead MoreThe Department Of Homeland Security1602 Words   |  7 PagesDepartment of Homeland Security The Department of Homeland Security is an agency made up of 22 different federal agencies which were combined in an effort to streamline the United States effectiveness in defending our nation. The core mission of the Department of Homeland Security include prevent terrorism and enhancing security, secure and manage our borders, enforce and administer our immigration laws, safeguard and secure cyberspace, ensure resilience to disasters (Department of Homeland Security, 2015)Read MoreNational Intelligence Advise1018 Words   |  4 PagesIMPROVING THE INTELLIGENCE AT HOMELAND SECURITY DEPARTMENT Mr. President, The report of the Strategies to improve the Department of Homeland Security, United States has been presented to President of the United States of America by Director of National Intelligence, in accordance with Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act (IRTPA) of 2004 (Office of the Director of National Intelligence 2012). This report reflects the important steps that can be taken to improve the intelligenceRead MoreRoles Of Law Enforcement And Intelligence1503 Words   |  7 PagesUnited States we have many different intelligence agencies, most of which existed during September 11. One of the most well known intelligence agencies is The Central Intelligence Agency, their mission is to â€Å"Preempt threats and further US national security objectives by collecting intelligence that matters, producing objective all-source analysis, conducting effective covert action as directed by the President, and safeguarding the secrets that keep our Nation safe† (Central Intelligence Agency)

Of envy Essay Example For Students

Of envy Essay There be none of the affections, which have been noted to fascinate or bewitch, but love and envy. They both have vehement wishes; they frame themselves readily into imaginations and suggestions; and they come easily into the eye, especially upon the present of the objects; which are the points that conduce to fascination, if any such thing there be. see likewise, the Scripture calleth envy an evil eye; and the astrologers, call the evil influences of the stars, evil aspects; so that still there seemeth to be acknowledged, in the act of envy, an ejaculation or irradiation of the eye. Nay, some have been so curious, as to note, that the times when the stroke or percussion of an envious eye doth most hurt, are when the party envied is beheld in glory or triumph; for that sets an edge upon envy: and besides, at such times the spirits of the person envied, do come forth most into the outward parts, and so meet the blow. But leaving these curiosities though not unworthy to be thought on, in fit place, we will handle, what persons are apt to envy others; what persons are most subject to be envied themselves; and what is the difference between public and private envy. A man that hath no virtue in himself, ever envieth virtue in others. For mens minds, will either feed upon their own good, or upon others evil; and who wanteth the one, will prey upon the other; and whoso is out of hope, to attain to anothers virtue, will seek to come at even hand, by depressing anothers fortune. A man that is busy, and inquisitive, is commonly envious. For to know much of other mens matters, cannot be because all that ado may concern his own estate; therefore it must needs be, that he taketh a kind of play-pleasure, in looking upon the fortunes of others. Neither can he, that mindeth but his own business, find much matter for envy. For envy is a gadding passion, and walketh the streets, and doth not keep home: Non est curiosus, quin idem sit malevolus. Men of noble birth, are noted to be envious towards new men, when they rise. For the distance is altered, and it is like a deceit of the eye, that when others come on, they think themselves, go back. Deformed persons, and eunuchs, and old men, and bastards, are envious. For he that cannot possibly mend his own case, will do what he can, to impair anothers; except these defects light upon a very brave, and heroical nature, which thinketh to make his natural wants part of his honor; in that it should be said, that an eunuch, or a lame man, did such great matters; affecting the honor of a miracle; as it was in Narses the eunuch, and Agesilaus and Tamberlanes, that were lame men. The same is the case of men, that rise after calamities and misfortunes. For they are as men fallen out with the times; and think other mens harms, a redemption of their own sufferings. They that desire to excel in too many matters, out of levity and vain glory, are ever envious. For they cannot want work; it being impossible, but many, in some one of those things, should surpass them. Which was the character of Adrian the Emperor; that mortally envied poets, and painters, and artificers, in works wherein he had a vein to excel. Lastly, near kinsfolks, and fellows in office, and those that have been bred together, are more apt to envy their equals, when they are raised. .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b , .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b .postImageUrl , .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b , .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b:hover , .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b:visited , .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b:active { border:0!important; } .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b:active , .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u01407bcc9473a731ef147cd789bd3a3b:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Hiv Aids Essay ConclusionFor it doth upbraid unto them their own fortunes, and pointeth at them, and cometh oftener into their remembrance, and incurreth likewise more into the note of others; and envy ever redoubleth from speech and fame. Cains envy was the more vile and malignant, towards his brother Abel, because when his sacrifice was better accepted, there was no body to look on. Thus much for those, that are apt to envy. Concerning those that are more or less subject to envy: First, persons of eminent virtue, when they are advanced, are less envied. For their fortune seemeth, but due unto them; and no man envieth the payment of a debt, but rewards and liberality rather. Again, envy is ever joined with the comparing of a mans self; and where there is no comparison, no envy; and therefore kings are not envied, but by kings. Nevertheless it is to be noted, that unworthy persons are most envied, at their first coming in, and afterwards overcome it better; whereas contrariwise, persons of worth and merit are most envied, when their fortune continueth long. For by that time, though their virtue be the same, yet it hath not the same lustre; for fresh men grow up that darken it. Persons of noble blood, are less envied in their rising. For it seemeth but right done to their birth. Besides, there seemeth not much added to their fortune; and envy is as the sunbeams, that beat hotter upon a bank, or steep rising ground, than upon a flat. And for the same reason, those that are advanced by degrees, are less envied than those that are advanced suddenly and per saltum. Those that have joined with their honor great travels, cares, or perils, are less subject to envy. For men think that they earn their honors hardly, and pity them sometimes; and pity ever healeth envy. Wherefore you shall observe, that the more deep and sober sort of politic persons, in their greatness, are ever bemoaning themselves, what a life they lead; chanting a quanta patimur. Not that they feel it so, but only to abate the edge of envy. But this is to be understood, of business that is laid upon men, and not such, as they call unto themselves. For nothing increaseth envy more, than an unnecessary and ambitious engrossing of business. And nothing doth extinguish envy than for a great person to preserve all other inferior officers, in their full rights and pre-eminences of their places. For by that means, there be so many screens between him and envy. Above all, those are most subject to envy, which carry the greatness of their fortunes, in an insolent and proud manner; being never well, but while they are showing how great they are, either by outward pomp, or by triumphing over all opposition or competition; whereas wise men will rather do sacrifice to envy, in suffering themselves sometimes of purpose to be crossed, and overborne in things that do not much concern them. Notwithstanding, so much is true, that the carriage of greatness, in a plain and open manner so it be without arrogancy and vain glory doth draw less envy, than if it be in a more crafty and cunning fashion. For in that course, a man doth but disavow fortune; and seemeth to be conscious of his own want in worth; and doth but teach others, to envy him. Lastly, to conclude this part; as we said in the beginning, that the act of envy had somewhat in it of witchcraft, so there is no other cure of envy, but the cure of witchcraft; and that is to remove the lot as they call it and to lay it upon another. .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3 , .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3 .postImageUrl , .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3 , .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3:hover , .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3:visited , .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3:active { border:0!important; } .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3:active , .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3 .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u0fa3402c1ea1c5db45bd1cc200f74aa3:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: What is Culture EssayFor which purpose, the wiser sort of great persons, bring in ever upon the stage somebody upon whom to derive the envy, that would come upon themselves; sometimes upon ministers and servants; sometimes upon colleagues and associates; and the like; and for that turn there are never wanting, some persons of violent and undertaking natures, who, so they may have power and business, will take it at any cost. Now, to speak of public envy. There is yet some good in public envy, whereas in private, there is none. For public envy, is as an ostracism, that eclipseth men, when they grow too great. And therefore it is a bridle also to great ones, to keep them within bounds. This envy, being in the Latin word invidia, goeth in the modern language, by the name of discontentment: of which we shall speak, in handling sedition. It is a disease, in a state, like to infection. For as infection spreadeth upon that which is sound, and tainteth it; so when envy is gotten once into a state, it traduceth even the best actions thereof, and turneth them into an ill odor. And therefore there is little won, by intermingling of plausible actions. For that doth argue but a weakness, and fear of envy, which hurteth so much the more, as it is likewise usual in infections; which if you fear them, you call them upon you. This public envy, seemeth to beat chiefly upon principal officers or ministers, rather than upon kings, and estates themselves. But this is a sure rule, that if the envy upon the minister be great, when the cause of it in him is small; or if the envy be general, in a manner upon all the ministers of an estate; then the envy though hidden is truly upon the state itself. And so much of public envy or discontentment, and the difference thereof from private envy, which was handled in the first place. We will add this in general, touching the affection of envy; that of all other affections, it is the most importune and continual. For of other affections, there is occasion given, but now and then; and therefore it was well said, Invidia festos dies non agit. For it is ever working upon some or other. And it is also noted, that love and envy do make a man pine, which other affections do not, because they are not so continual. It is also the vilest affection, and the most depraved; for which cause it is the proper attribute of the devil, who is called The envious man, that soweth tares amongst the wheat by night: as it always cometh to pass, that envy worketh subtilly, and in the dark, and to the prejudice of good things, such as is the wheat.

Impact of Brand Image on Consumer Buying Behavior

Question: Discuss about the Impact of Brand Image on Consumer Buying Behavior. Answer: Introduction: Accounting is a technique of identifying, recording, analyzing, evaluating, summarizing and communicating important financial information to internal and external users with an aim to assist them in interpreting relevant data (Weil, Schipper Francis, 2013). Managers use accounting information to understand consumers preference and their buying behavior. Every organization must design effective accounting system to provide timely and accurate report to various departments including the marketing department so that these departments can use the information for understanding and forecasting important matters (Aguilar et al., 2013). Thus, effective accounting practice is beneficial to entire organization. Profession and being professional: Profession is an occupation for which individuals undergo formal training and acquire intensive education through professional courses from recognized university or educational institution. Professionals provide counseling and services to clients and charge a predetermined compensation in turn, irrespective of whether the client incurs loss or earns profitability from the business (Aguilar et al., 2013). Professionals are generally not involved in any physical labor. They are competent in providing mental labor in the area of their expertise. They follow strict code of conduct and represent a body of professionals (King Fitzgerald, 2016). Accounting as a profession: Accounting profession has definite principles, methods and fundamentals and thus it is actually a pure profession. Accounting professionals can be private accounting professionals who work as an employee in an organization or public accounting professionals who are self employed and obtain a license to practice on their own. Accounting professionals can be engaged in different areas of specialization depending on the degree that they obtained and keen interest that they have in a particular subject (Carrington et al., 2013). The demand for accounting professionals has been rising continuously. Every economy is suffering from big corporate frauds and scams. Professional accountants play an important role in fighting corporate corruptions and fraud. The role of professionals like Income Tax officers and auditors in the corporate world is given due importance. Various legislations have made the audit of company by independent auditor mandatory for every accounting period. The auditors can help in preventing fraud by giving an independent, true and fair view of the accounting position of the company (Rezaee Kedia, 2012). Income Tax Officers ensure that the tax obligations are met within due date. Buying behavior is the study of pattern of purchase and consumption of various products and services by ultimate consumers be it individuals or group of individuals for personal consumption or organizations for business purpose (Solomon, 2014). Brand image is the set of beliefs and overall impression of prospective customers about a particular brand (Rocereto, Kwak Puzakova, 2015). It indicates the position of a brand in the market as compared to other substitute and competitive products. Consumers form an emotional and mental image with regard to a brand through observation and accumulation of knowledge about the company (Anselmsson, Vestman Bondesson Johansson, 2014). Accounting plays an important role in formation of brand image and thus it affects consumers buying behavior as well. Companys Income Statement and Balance Sheet shows the financial position of the company. It helps consumers to understand the liquidity, cash flow, net worth status of the company. Consumers use annual reports and other available data to evaluate the reputation of the company. Accounting also provides data, which are specific to customers. These data give details about the order processing, shipping details and commitment of the company to deliver the products on time. Thus, if a company fails to meet the expectation of customers, it affects the buying behavior negatively. If the reports show that the company is committed to provide quality service, the consumers tend to get attracted towards the brand. To explain the concept of brand image and consumer buying behavior To indicate the components of consumer buying behavior To discuss the impact of brand image on consumer buying behavior. Objectives and Research Questions: Which the term brand image means What is the concept of consumer buying behavior What is the impact of brand image on consumer buying behavior? How can the company create a good brand image? Time Horizon: Main activities Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Study of Contextual Background v Selection of the Topic v Collection of secondary data v Composition of literature review v Results and findings v Analysis of the report v Conclusion v Final submission v Figure 1: Gantt chart Created by: Author Consumer Buying Behavior: Consumer buying behavior is a complex term, which is concerned with different aspects of buying behavior from the decision to purchase to the final disposal and use of the product or service (Solomon, 2014) The following diagram shows systematic process of consumer purchasing decision influenced by consumer buying behavior: Different research methods are used to analyze what makes a particular consumer to buy a product and reject another (Claiborne Sirgy, 2015). Consumer buying behavior is influenced by various factors like personal psychological factors, prevailing political and legal factors, the existing geographical social conditions and marketing promotion strategies adopted by the company. While studying consumer behavior, not only the activities and decisions undertaken by consumers before purchase of the product, service, experience or ideas are considered but also the disposal and consumption activities of consumers are taken into account. It is a difficult task for marketing managers to predict and understand the consumers and their buying behavior (Juster, 2015). Consumer buying behavior is affected by following factors: The cultural factors Social factors like family, friends and other reference groups Personal factors like age group, gender, nationality Psychological factors like motivation and perception. Brand Image: Marketing managers are always concerned about maintenance of brand image. Brand is a unique feature of a product, which distinguishes it from the products of the competitors. A brand may be the name of the company, its logo or any other sign or symbol which defines and differentiates the product (Anselmsson, Vestman Bondesson Johansson, 2014). A customer evaluates all the available brands to which he has access and develops brand relationship based on the differentiating features, which attract mind of the customer (Tukej, Golob Podnar, 2013). Brand image is considered one of the most valuable assets a company can have and indicates all the visible traits, visible representations, tangible and intangible qualities of the product (Rocereto, Kwak Puzakova, 2015). Brand image is specifically related to a product or service and indicates expectation of the customers to meet the promises . Impact of Brand Image on Consumer Buying Behavior: Brand image is one of the most important factors that influence the consumer buying behavior. In industries like banking and tele- communication, brand image plays significant role in influencing consumer-buying behavior. Consumers evaluate different attributes of a product before making a purchase decision (lensen, 2015). If the product has a great brand image, it directly influences consumer perception about the product, which ultimately affects the purchase decision-making process. Researchers consider study of brand awareness and brand image as the first step in conducting the research on consumer behavior (Malik et al., 2013). A great brand is the psychological and intangible value of a product that the customers have in their mind. Customer satisfaction creates customer loyalty and customer preference, which ultimately result in brand image. If a product has a good brand image but the consumers have negative buying behavior, the company has scope to increase the sales by creating good brand image through various marketing strategies. Good brand image and positive buying behavior is the win-win situation. If the consumers have positive buying behavior towards a product but the product has a bad brand image, there are high chances that consumers will change their preferences. Again bad brand image and negative behavior requires urgent attention of marketing managers to improve the situation. Findings and analysis: Consumer buying pattern is very unpredictable and is a matter of concern for marketing managers (Kardes, Cronley Cline, 2014). The main motive of a company engaged in providing any kind of services, ideas, knowledge or product is to beat the competition and attract consumers to buy their product instead of those of the competitors. In formulating the marketing strategies, the companies always consider how consumers perceive the products that the company is offering. The consumer perception depends on the ability of the company to meet their expectation and is termed as brand image. If the company fails to keep the promises it makes, it affects the brand image. The consumers shift their buying decision to some other alternative. Brand image is an invaluable asset, which is difficult to regain in this competitive market. Thus, every company tries to maintain and improve the brand image in the eyes of customers. Conclusion: It can be concluded that accounting as a profession has very bright future. The importance of accounting professionals is rising day by day. Accounting plays an important role in marketing management too (van Helden Alsem, 2016). It provides information to consumers on which the consumers base their decision. Apart from the financial position, brand image is a factor, which influences the buying decision of consumers. Consumers make their purchase decision after evaluating a number of tangible and intangible key attributes of the product. Brand image reflects these attributes and is a sign, symbol, name or logo of the company, which is widely used by the consumers to recognize the product. Brand image is considered the most important factor in influencing consumer buying behavior. The consumer perception about the quality is influenced by the brand image. This perception has direct impact on consumer buying behavior. Hence, it can be said that brand image has direct impact on consum er buying behavior. References: Aguilar, A., Stupans, I., Scutter, S., King, S. (2013). Towards a definition of professionalism in Australian occupational therapy: Using the Delphi technique to obtain consensus on essential values and behaviours.Australian occupational therapy journal,60(3), 206-216. Anselmsson, J., Vestman Bondesson, N., Johansson, U. (2014). Brand image and customers' willingness to pay a price premium for food brands.Journal of Product Brand Management,23(2), 90-102. Carrington, T., Johansson, T., Johed, G., hman, P. (2013). An empirical test of the hierarchical construct of professionalism and managerialism in the accounting profession.Behavioral Research in Accounting,25(2), 1-20. Claiborne, C. B., Sirgy, M. J. (2015). Self-image congruence as a model of consumer attitude formation and behavior: A conceptual review and guide for future research. InProceedings of the 1990 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) Annual Conference(pp. 1-7). Springer International Publishing. Hollensen, S. (2015).Marketing management: A relationship approach. Pearson Education. Juster, F. T. (2015).Anticipations and purchases: An analysis of consumer behavior. Princeton University Press. Kardes, F., Cronley, M., Cline, T. (2014).Consumer behavior. Cengage Learning. King, R., Fitzgerald, L. (2016). 10. Challenges facing the accounting profession: maintaining relevance in a changing environment.Perspectives on Contemporary Professional Work: Challenges and Experiences, 187. Malik, M. E., Ghafoor, M. M., Iqbal, H. K., Ali, Q., Hunbal, H., Noman, M., Ahmad, B. (2013). Impact of brand image and advertisement on consumer buying behavior.World Applied Sciences Journal,23(1), 117-122. Rezaee, Z., Kedia, B. L. (2012). Role of corporate governance participants in preventing and detecting financial statement fraud.Journal of Forensic Investigative Accounting,4(2), 176-205. Rocereto, J. F., Kwak, H., Puzakova, M. (2015). The Role of Self-Concept Brand Image Congruity in Consumers Attitudinal Formation and Attitudinal Brand Loyalty: A View From Utilitarian and Hedonic Product Brands. InProceedings of the 2009 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) Annual Conference(pp. 141-141). Springer International Publishing. Solomon, M. R. (2014).Consumer behavior: Buying, having, and being. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: prentice Hall. Tukej, U., Golob, U., Podnar, K. (2013). The role of consumerbrand identification in building brand relationships.Journal of business research,66(1), 53-59. van Helden, J., Alsem, K. J. (2016). The Delicate Interface between Management Accounting and Marketing Management.J Account Mark,5(179), 2. Weil, R. L., Schipper, K., Francis, J. (2013).Financial accounting: an introduction to concepts, methods and uses. Cengage Learning. YourArticleLibrary.com: The Next Generation Library. (2016). Top 5 Stages of Consumer Buying Process. [online] Available at: https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/consumers/top-5-stages-of-consumer-buying-process/48596/ [Accessed 22 Dec. 2016].

Akindele Owolabi Essays (1145 words) - Racism, Identity Politics

Akindele Owolabi Essays (1145 words) - Racism, Identity Politics Akindele Owolabi Nikongo Ba'Nikongo The African Experience in film November 28, 2015 Racism in the Americas and Africa Racism is prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against someone of a different race based on the belief that one's own race is superior. Racism has been especially prevalent in Africa and in the Americas for the past few decades. In the Americas, Blacks have been discriminated against and attacked because of their color. Even though blacks are originally from Africa, the same discrimination and general mistreatment has been done there as well. Racism has affected the lives of blacks through violence, through acting as a unifying force, and through perpetuating poverty. Throughout history, blacks have been victims at the hands of violence for decades. "Cry Freedom" depicts that experience in Africa. The movie "Cry Freedom" is essentially about the fight against apartheid from the perspective of a journalist Donald Woods and it also shows the highlights of Steve Biko's life. Steve Biko was one of the many South Africans that were jailed, beaten, tortured, killed during the apartheid era. Also depicted in the film, when blacks went to riot in front of the police against the unfair laws of apartheid, they were attacked with pepper spray and if they continued to riot, were sometimes shot on site. Police spared no one; men, women, and children were all shot mercilessly. This these actions by the police were also displayed in the motion picture a "Dry White season". Gordon Ngubene, the son of an all white school teacher's gardener, was beaten then captured and tortured by the local police. In the Americas, violence was definitely an experience blacks had to deal with due to racism. The film Mississippi burning displayed violence during the Civil Right movement as three Civil Rights workers, who were organizing a voter registry clinic, went missing in Mississippi's Jessup County. While the FBI are still investigating the murders, the Ku Klux Klan, with help from the police, target the frightened African-Americans, brutally torturing them and setting their houses on fire. In the motion picture Malcolm X directed by Spike Lee, there was a brief part in the beginning of the film that showed Malcolm's life as a young child in Omaha, Nebraska. His family's home was set on fire and his father was killed by the Klu Klux Klan causing him and his siblings to become wards of the state. A last example of violence due to racism is in the fictional movie "Higher learning". Deja, the young collegiate track star for Columbus University, was killed by a fellow classmate/white supr emacist Remy in his attempts to terrorize the blacks on campus and to show his Aryan Brothers that he was a true white supremacist. These are just a few of many other examples that shows how racism towards Blacks causes violence and in some cases leads to death. Although racism has exacerbated violence and other negative things, it has created a sense of unity in black communities. A prime example of that is in the film Malcolm X. The black men of Malcolm's community came together and were unified through Islam. Although later on conflicts occurred within the nation of Islam, at the moment, it gave the blacks in his community a sense of hope and purpose and encouraged them throughout their conflicts with the whites. In South Africa their bravery and unity helped them in their peaceful protests and sometimes riots. The Africans came together in their community whenever they were about to go protest in front of the police. Although they knew some of them would be attacked and killed by the police, they were still unified because of the strong passion they had for the elimination of the apartheid era. On the campus of Columbus University in "higher learning", the black students also came together. They met to bring up matters that concerned them such as not feeling like their school is a safe environment and the discrimination from their campus police and some of their fellow classmates that were in the white Fraternities and Sororities. Racism can create a sense of unity force. Throughout history humans have always come together in hard times for encouragement and support of one another. In

Essay on Italians in America

Essay on Italians in America Essay on Italians in America Example Essay on Italians in America: The Italians immigrated into the USA for various reasons, since the 18th century. As a matter of fact, since 1946, approximately 300,000 Italians settled in the United States of America During the early periods, as they began to move into the country, they were faced with massive discrimination. They were discriminated on the ground of their nationality. They were seen as intruders and foreigners in the country For instance, Irish Catholics were barred from exercising their religious rights. They were also barred from receiving quality education, becoming professions, holding public offices; involve themselves in trade or commercial. They were also derived off the rights of purchasing a land, voting and leasing land. Due to all these, the Italians living in America at that time had to look for some survival strategy. They used the ethnic strategy to become acceptable American. In this paper, we are going to discuss about these ethnic strategies, which were used by these people (Morri son,et.al., p. 20-39) To begin with, they took a step of trying to involve in active trade. They took over some type of trade and started controlling them. They turn out to be very vigorous in trade unions. As a matter of facts, they selected some leaders who played an important role in the American trade. These include people like Giovanniti and Tresca. Some of the trades they were very active in were as we are going to discuss below. They involved themselves in active innovation. For instance, the Jacuzzi family invented the hot tub Jacuzzi in 1907. This became very rampant in the American market. This Italian family also made propellers. These were for supplying to the American military during the war. They were also very active and developed some jet water pump. All these products from the Italian family played an important role in the American market(Cannistraro, et.al., p.60). Another place where the Italians played ventured into the market was in the coffee field. An Italian by the name Vince developed a filter for extraction of oil from the coffee beans. These filters entered the American market very rampantly. It is estimated that at least 10 million of them are still being sold annually. They also ventured into the hotel market. For instance, some became chefs. They left a legend in the hospitality market. For instance, chef Boyardee left a legend of being the best in America in making the best spaghetti dinners. He was also known as the best in making the best pizza mix, sauce and pasta. There was also a famous Italian immigrant, who started a restaurant in Cleveland. In 1930, he began a company for canned foods. Throughout the 2nd world war, his company was the biggest supplier of food to the U.S army. This was a step of the Italian immigrants, into the trade market of America. An Italian immigrant, pepsin began making wagons in 1917. Up to date, this company is still running and is estimated to produce at least 8,000 wagons in a day. The above are just but a few fields in which the immigrants ventured into, in the world of trade. Secondly, they started taking part in the political systems America. They were beginning with the city politics. The second generation of Italian immigrants became vigorous in politics. They produced some great public figures such as Laguardia, Vito and Caller. Some instances where the immigrants were involving themselves in the American politics include: during the American evaluation. American Italian played an important role in support American colonists. Secondly, the immigrants played an important role in the American civil wars. A massive number of Italians served as officers in the civil wars. It is estimated that they were more than 100 Italian Americans. More than 200,000 American Italians served the U.S military during the Second World War (Cannistraro, et.al., pp 92-102). Thirdly, they were able to manipulate the newfound privileges. This included the political and economic influences which created hospitable environment to new immigrants. After the Second World War, the Americans revised their immigration policies. The policies became lighter to the immigrants and more people could migrate into America. The Italian Americans had a privilege, since they had supported the American government during the war. The discrimination went down and with this, they were able to settle better in America, and invest with less fear (Cannistraro,et.al., p.80) The above strategies worked well for the Italians. However, they did not go undeterred. For instance, there was the major challenge that came with tribalism and racism. The Italians in America had the label â€Å"colored†, and so faced discrimination like any other immigrants in America. They were discriminated in many places in America, and so they found it difficult to apply their strategies. For instance, when they tried to enter the American market, initially, their products were undermined, and hence sold at a cheaper price. The popularity of their products only came to grow after a long duration of time and struggle(Morrison,et.al., p. 59). In conclusion, though the immigrant laws changed, this does not have a great impact on how the Italian Americans are treated. Up to date, many Native Americans still look down upon the nonnative Americans. In other words, we cannot actually argue that the Italian strategies worked out completely for them. There is still some need to reduce the amount of discrimination in America. Get online essay writing help from professional writers at premium custom essay writing service.

CSR Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

CSR - Essay Example The recent years have witnessed mounting pressures from various stakeholder groups for corporations to incorporate sustainability into their supply chain management procedures. Sustainable or green supply chain management can be roughly defined as the management of all activities right from the purchase from suppliers to taking back the disposed product from the customers with a special focus on improving the social and environmental impacts of those activities (Business Guide, 2003). This can be contrasted with the conventional supply chain management focused only on the activities until delivery of manufactured products or services to the customers. Therefore, the environmental responsibility has drifted away from the consumer to the manufacturer and retailer (Business Guide, 2003). However, research has suggested that companies require not only the internal capacities, resources and corporate culture to achieve sustainability but also an ‘external fit’ to achieve stra tegic collaboration with their suppliers (Kanter, 1994) which presents a challenge to companies embracing this philosophy. Furthermore, the grey area surrounding the definition of ‘sustainability’ and ‘green supply chain’ means that sustainable SCM has to be discussed in terms of reverse logistics, closed loop supply chain and various other drivers. There are several drivers for a sustainable supply chain management primarily because of the related benefits to various stakeholders. These include government Regulations, Market forces, Customers, Investors and Employees. The government owns the primary responsibility to influence supply chain sustainability. Government can achieve progress on this by effective use of bans, subsidies and incentives. The government can come up with measures such as environmental labels, licenses and product design guidelines (Business Guide, pp. 42). There are already a number of regulations in place for sustainability. These i nclude U.S. Farm security and rural investment act (2002), European Union’s Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS), China ROHS, E.U. Cosmetics directive, E.U. Packaging Directive, Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and REACH. In addition there are International Standards such as WRAP, FLA, ICTI CARE, ISO 14000 and ISO 26000 for addressing environmental causes (Business for Social Responsibility, 2007). As far as the market forces are concerned, the relationship between brand owners and retailers is changing. Big retailers such as Wal-Mart have a huge clout over the manufacturers and control the types of products they want to keep on their shelves. In addition, the retailers and brand owners are also under tremendous pressure from NGOs and other organizations working for environmental causes. As far as the customers are concerned, there is a long way to go before the customer becomes mature enough to buy only environment friendly products. However, the shift has already begun and the customers are willing to spend a few extra dollars to promote or support green supply chain initiatives. WholeFoods charges higher prices for its products than a retailer such as Wal-Mart but is still acceptable to customers because of the sustainable practices being followed in the manufacturing of those products. Furthermore, there are several socially

Pros and Cons of Tariffs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Pros and Cons of Tariffs - Essay Example The essay "Pros and Cons of Tariffs" analyzes what we need the taxes for, their functions, their advantages, and disadvantages. Tariffs are known as custom, import duties, or import fees are generally barriers to trade that protect the locally produced goods and promoting domestic industries. One of the basic components of tariff system is tariff classification. National tariffs are organized in such a manner that they consist of tariff classification numbers that are assigned to goods and corresponding tariff rates. The other component of tariffs is a valuation of goods for tariff purposes. The effects of import tariffs cannot be under estimated for it raises domestic prices in the country imposing the tariff. In countries that do not have an influence on the international prices, the amount of the tariff however in countries that have an impact on the international prices, the prices are less than a number of tariffs due to the fact that part of the tariff is reflected in a reduction in international prices. Placing a tariff on an imported good has a number of outcomes, which are quite advantageous to the home country. Use of tariffs can come in time when the government would like to protect local infant industries against stiff competition. Many developing nations employ the Import Substitution Industrialization strategy. The government may even levy tariffs of goods in industries they would like to invest in the country. This will provide local industries an advantage of production of cheap goods.

SEMESTER PROJECT Thesis Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

SEMESTER PROJECT - Thesis Proposal Example The food chain is famous for customising and evolving as per the consumer preferences. This philosophy helped McDonalds succeed in 119 countries, including culturally-sensitive Arabian and South-east Asia nations. Thus, it can be described as unstable. Subway, though an International fast food chain, spread over 98 countries, is narrower than McDonalds, as the former targets the health-conscious customers, who propose to eat fresh. Its nutrition focus made it possible to establish franchises in churches, hospitals etc too. Comparatively, the menu also speaks the same, as the product portfolio includes sandwiches, salads, burgers, sides and soft drinks (Doctors Associates Inc., 2009). But for the minor modifications to suit the local religious beliefs, not many changes are made in the menu. So, Subway has a more or less stable outlook, as compared to McDonalds. Coming to the boundaries, McDonalds is highly permeable and attracts customers, right from its clown, Ronald and its golden arches welcoming them. The seating arrangement, ambience, the first part of their tagline, ‘Get them in’ reinforce this ideology. The turnover rates at store level are found to be low, showing its impermeability in this aspect (Francis, 2011). The logo, flashy ‘open’ board and long working hours bring customers to the outlet. But, the limited number of tables and less store space make Subway unlikely destinations for catching up with friends. It operates more on take away mode and therefore less permeable than McDonalds. High employee attrition rates have also been observed at Subway, mainly due to low levels of satisfaction, which declare its permeability (Schlosser, 2001). McDonalds has a complex activity system, which guarantees competitive advantage (Pride & Ferrell, 2007). The laborious and long procedures also make it inflexible. Subway heavily relies on franchising. The complex and inflexible activity system is thus transmitted to the all levels, emphasizing the

Effect of Exercise on Depression: Literature Review

Effect of Exercise on Depression: Literature Review Depression is a disorder which will affect mood, thought and behaviour. Although the majority of the population will at some point in their lives experience low points and the ‘blues,’ depression itself is when these feelings begin to take over and affect the degree to which someone can function (Artal Sherman, 1998). The symptoms of depression can include a persistent sadness and feelings of emptiness, hopelessness and pessimism. People with depression will also often exhibit physical symptoms which can include decreased energy and fatigue, changes to sleeping and eating patterns (increased or decreased levels of) and increased experience of illness from headaches, digestive disorders and chronic pain episodes. (Depression Alliance) Anhedonia – the loss of joy from things or events that were once pleasurable, often including a reduced sex drive is also commonly reported by sufferers. As a result of the symptoms associated with depression and depressive disorders (major depression, bipolar) people can often become increasingly socially withdrawn by both reducing their contact with others, and through reducing their activities such as going out or participation in hobbies. Such withdrawal can also incur further psychological impact, whereby people begin to loose self-esteem and belief that t hey can complete activities they once had, which perpetuates to increase the depression and low mood. Major depression can have serious long term consequences – there is an increased risk of self harm and suicide, with estimates of approximately 15% of the severely depressed committing suicide (Artal Sherman, 1998). There is no one single root of depression that can explain all cases. People may experience depression due to a number of different factors; physical (developing a serious disease, impaired function of brain chemicals), environmental (uncertain housing situation, living in a neighbourhood with a high crime rate) social (inter-personal relationship difficulties or divorce, loss of a job, moving away form home) or traumatic events (bereavement, experiencing a natural disaster, domestic abuse), or even through a combination of these triggers. Depression is a clinical disorder and as a result will often need professional intervention in order to begin the road to recovery. Negative responses from others in regards to attitudes for people to ‘pull their socks up’ and ‘snap out of it’ are described by many with the condition as making the situation worse through causing distress and upset as they are unlikely to be able to do this. Treatment of depression thus usually involves professional help, through a number of available avenues for treatment types – successful recovery programmes are noted to often involve a combination of treatment methods (Lam Kennedy, 2004). Medication such as antidepressants like prozac or zoloft, and talking therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), counselling are tried and tested means of helping alleviate both the condition and its associated symptoms (Rethink). Existing treatments do not unfortunately work for everyone, and limitations of these existing treatments can include antidepressants which take weeks or months to have an effect or where side effects are at a level whereby compliance to the designated regimen is not adhere to; or the difficulties with which many people can have in accessing psychological therapies / talking treatments where waiting lists can be long or even where certain services are not even available in an area of residence. As a result of such factors, new ways of treating and managing psychological conditions like depression are being evaluated through research and investigation. One of these new methods is through the use of exercise, which has been increasingly suggested and supported through contemporary literature on this as an intervention. There are a number of articles which look at the link between exercise and depression and how exercise can help alleviate depression-related symptoms; and relief from the condition altogether (Halliwell, 2005; Bayak et al, 2000). Some studies report exercise treatment efficacy as being equal to medication treatments (Blumenthal et al, 1999), but a good number of published studies conclude that exercise therapy would optimise treatment within a combination therapy regime although one notable exception to this is the Babyak et al (2000) study which found the exercise group as superior in results to both the medication group, and the combination (exercise and med ication) group. Babyak et al (2000) compared experimental depression treatment groups of exercise, medication and a combination of exercise and medication. Results of this 10-month study concluded that use of a modest exercise plan (30 minutes of a 70% maximum heart rate workout 3 times per week) is an effective treatment for depressed patients who hold a positive view to such a treatment. Overall it has been suggested that 85% of people who use exercise therapy have found it helpful (Halliwell, 2005), and as a result of such studies, NICE guidelines on treatment of (mild) depression states that patients of all ages should be advised of the benefits of following a structured and supervised exercise programme for between 10 – 12 weeks (Hughes, 2005; Halliwell, 2005). The way in which exercise therapy exerts this effect on depression is suggested within the literature as through two possible routes. The first route is physiological. Physical exertion occurring through exercise is known to cause chemical reactions within the body that result in the release of endorphins (a type of hormone) to five times their resting rate. that is secreted from the pituitary gland into the bloodstream during times of pain or stress. Through blocking the release of certain neurotransmitters in the brain, endorphins stop pain signals being received and therefore act as the body’s own ‘natural pain killers’. This analgesic effect also extends to causing a feeling of euphoria. Endorphins thus work towards both mood-enhancing and pain relieving effects and so will work towards alleviating depressive symptoms such as headaches, whilst also boosting positive moods. In relation to depression specifically, it has also been suggested that exercise can reduce physiological responsivity of the body to stressors, which can lead to improvements in psychological well-being, and feelings towa rds ability to cope. (Steptoe, Kimbell Basford, 1998). Lastly, neuro-chemicals are also believed to be an important physiological means by which exercise improves depression. Research into the physiological components of depression has demonstrated low levels or ineffective transmission of neurotransmitters such as noreinephrine and serotonin and thus may play a role in depressive symptomology – as exercise increases the release of neurotransmitters it is believed this increased availability (which is the same effect that many antidepressants exert) is behind improved mood (Ransford, 1982) after exercise. Improvement in neurotransmitter functionality, more specifically improved serotonin availability, has also been suggested as a way in which exercise appears to help people restore normal sleep patterns, important when considering that disruption to sleep is a very common symptom experienced by people with depression. This is suggested to stem from the fact that serotonin has a role of inputting to the SCN (suprachiasmatic nuclei) where our internal body clock which regulates our circadian rhythms, is located. As serotonin as often found to be altered (decreased) in those with depression, improved availability through exercise is a way in which depressive symptoms of disturbed sleep may be helped. (Solberg, Horton Turek, 1999) The second proposed way in which exercise is believed to help depressed individuals is the psychological route. Participation in exercise can invoke positive feelings of self-belief and accomplishment, through which self-esteem can be improved the so-called Mastery hypothesis (Babyak et al, 2000) where achievement makes us feel better about ourselves. This is an important aspect as the way in which social withdrawal is so often seen in those that are depressed can negatively impact self-esteem. (MIND) Along these lines involvement in exercise activity also raises the possibility of improving social support through providing opportunity for social interactions with others, with social support renowned for its importance in recovery from depression. (MIND) One of the other more psychological explanations behind exercise and its affect on depression is the Distraction hypothesis. Quite simply, through the distraction of the physical activity we are temporarily able to shift our focus a nd thoughts away from the stressors or everyday difficulties which may be contributing to the depression and low mood. Evidence for exercise in the treatment of depression can also be supported through literature from another angle. Participation in exercise has been studied in its protective capacity against depression (Artal Sherman, 1998), with findings that individuals categorised as participating in lower levels of exercise activity were at higher risk of developing depression than individuals who had regular and high levels of physical activity (Camacho, 1991). On the back of available research such as that reviewed for this essay, the use of exercise in the treatment of medical conditions is gaining credibility within the medical professional to stem beyond treatment for purely physically based conditions such as heart disease and obesity, but as a means of helping those with psychological conditions like depression. Authors promoting use of exercise as a treatment for depression also often comment on the positive health benefits it will bring alongside amelioration of depression-related symptoms that other treatments for depression cannot bring (van de Vliet et al, 2003). Exercise itself is associated with positive health benefits including reducing body fat, lowering blood pressure, strengthening bones, and muscles and improving the body’s cardiovascular system. Exercise is therefore a potentially more positive treatment regimen as the experience it involves does not include the negative side effects which are commonly reported fr om pharmacological treatments. (Halliwell, 2005). In summary, there is a vast array of literature that supports the integration of exercise therapy within a treatment programme for a more effective and positive treatment experience for people with mild to moderate depression. The severity of the depression will influence whether exercise is a practical treatment to provide, as more severe cases are less likely to be able to adhere to such a treatment regimen (potentially as a result of more severe physical symptoms and fatigue that may stop them from any higher level of physical exertion). As a result it is found throughout the literature that for exercise therapy to be a success and exert a therapeutic benefit, individuals must have some level of positive feeling towards participating in such a programme – thus exercise therapy is recommended for mild not moderate, but not severely depressed individuals. Not only does the research in this field demonstrate the ability of exercise to alleviate both mood and physical symptoms through the body’s release of endorphins, but can aid psychological and physical recovery through improved self-esteem through mastery, and with all the physical benefits that an active lifestyle brings. Exercise on prescription is now available throughout the UK via GP’s, and so future research is thus needed into developing specific treatment programmes that will optimise both levels and types (e.g. aerobic versus mindful; Netz, 2003) of exercise, and investigating the ways that these need to be individualised (Artal Sherman, 1998) potentially by condition, patient demographic etc for the treatment and long term care of those with depression. Research by the Mental Health Foundation does suggest however that awareness amongst the general practitioner community about the capability and availability of exercise programmes for depression is low †“ only 5% of GP’s are thought to offer exercise within the 3 most common treatment options they offer to their patients. (Mental Health Foundation, 2005) so raising awareness of exercise within the medical community is also a key future action within the promotion of exercise therapy. References Artal, M. Sherman, C. (1998) ‘Exercise against depression’ The Physician and Sprots Medicine Vol. 26, 10 Babyak, M. Blumenthal, J. Herham, S. Khatri, P. Doraiswamy, M. Moore, K. Craighead, E. Baldewicz, T. Krishnan, K. (2000) ‘Exercise treatment for major depression: Maintenance of therapeutic benefit at 10 months’ Psychosomatic Medicine Vol 62 Blumenthal, J. Babyak, M. Moore, K. Craighead, W. Herman, S, Khatri, P. Waugh, R. Napolitano, M. Forman, L. Appelbaum, M. Doraiswamy, P. Krishnan, K. (1999) ‘Effects of exercise training on older patients with major depression’ Arch Intern Med Vol. 159, 19 Camacho, T. (1991) ‘Physical activity and depression: Evidence from the Alameda County Study’ American Journal of Epdemiology Vol 134, 2 Halliwell, E. (2005) ‘Reflections.. on exercise and depression’ Healthcare Counselling Psychotherapy Journal Vol. 5, 3 Hughes, I. (2005) ‘NICE in practice: some thoughts on delivering the new guideline on depression’ Healthcare Counselling Psychotherapy Journal Vol. 5, 2 Lam, R. Kennedy, S. (2004) ‘Evidence-base strategies for achieving and sustaining full remission in depression: Focus on Meta-analyses’ Canadian Journal of Psychiatry Vol. 49 supplement 1 Mental Health Foundation (2005) ‘Up and running: exercise therapy and the treatment of mild or moderate depression in primary care’ London Mental Health Foundation Ransford, C (1982) ‘A role for amines in the antidepressant effect of exercise’ Medical Science in Sports Vol. 1, 10 Solberg, L. Horton, T. Turek, F. (1999) ‘Circadian rhythms and depression:effects of exercise in an animal model’ Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol Vol. 276 Steptoe, A. Kimbell, J. Basford, P. (1998) ‘Exercise and the experience and appraisal of daily stressors: a naturalistic study’ Journal of Behavioural Medicine Vol. 21, 4 Netz, Y. (2003) ‘Mood alterations in mindful versus aerobic exercise modes’ The Journal of Psychology Vol. 137, 5 Van de Vliet, P. Onghena, P. Knapen, J. Fox, K. Probst, M. van Coppenolle, H. Pieters, G. (2003) ‘Assessing the additional impact of fitness training in depressed psychiatric patients receiving multifaceted treatment: a replicated single-subject design’ Disability and Rehabilitation Vol. 25, 24 INTERNET RESOURCES www.depressionalliance.org www.mind.org.uk www.rethink.org

Chesnutt’s Evolving Treatment of the Color Line Through Naturalism Essa

Chesnutt’s Evolving Treatment of the Color Line Through Naturalism in â€Å"A Matter of Principle† and The House Behind the Cedar’s Charles W. Chesnutt, a well-educated mulatto man, lived his life on ‘the color line.’ Chesnutt’s skin was very light and was sometimes mistaken for a white man. Chesnutt chose to identify himself as a black man, but in his works, his characters move back and forth across the color line and struggle with the world they exist in. The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color Line was published one year before The House Behind the Cedars and included the short story, â€Å"A Matter of Principle,† where Chesnutt clearly begins to explore what options are available to a mulatto man and his family, which will later evolve in Cedars. Chesnutt incorporates his philosophy of literary naturalism to show John Walden, Rena, and Mr. Clayton in relation to their surroundings and as governed by their instincts, passions, heredity and environment. The physical nature of a person carried great weight in the South. Both John Walden and Cicero Clayton are very light mulatto men with good educations, wealth, and clear ideas about how the world should work, mostly in their favor. The South Carolina society in which they exist considers the men black, despite their outer appearance and treats them as such. This treatment is often base and degrading causing the men to feel that they have been harmed by the small amount of black blood coursing in their veins. The reader is told that as a young boy, John Walden thinks that â€Å"the mirror proved that God, the Father of all, had made him white†¦having made him white, He must have meant him to be white† (The House Behind the Cedars 107) . The stories reveal John and Clayton’s u... ...erican Literature." Literary Movements. (Updated 02/22/03). (Accessed 12/08/03). <http://www.gonzaga.edu/faculty/campbell/enl413/natural.htm>. Chesnutt, Charles W. â€Å"A Matter of Principle.† The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color Line. NC: U of NC at Chapel Hill Electronic Edition, 1997. Chesnutt, Charles W. The House Behind the Cedars. NY: Penguin, 1993. Chesnutt, Charles W. â€Å"Letter to George Washington Cable.† 25, July 1890. â€Å"To Be an Author.† Eds. Joseph R. McElrath, Jr., and Robert C. Leitz, III. NJ: Princeton UP, 1997. Duncan, Charles. The Absent Man: The Narratives of Charles W. Chesnutt. Athens: Ohio UP, 1998. Works Consulted Keller, Frances Richardson. An American Crusade: The Life of Charles Waddell Chesnutt. Utah: BYU P, 1978. Wonham, Henry B. Charles W. Chesnutt: A Study of the Short Fiction. NY: Twayne Publishers, 1998.

Marital rights or partial immunity? Essay

The rape within marriage was not a crime and this principle had stood for centuries until 1992. In the case of R ([1991] 2 All ER 257) the rape within marriage was constituted as a serious crime. Before it became a law it was place for debates and Professor Glanville Williams had given his proposals how the law should be changed on this topic. The current article of the author of Helen Fenwick, who is a lecturer in law at the University of Durham, explains why Prof. Williams proposals are not suitable to be a law and secondly, he considers the effect if Prof. Williams suggestions would have been approved. The article is comprehensive and every argument has decent backup, except one thing that author do not even try to identify merits of Prof. Williams proposals. The marital rights and partial immunity, according to Prof. Williams is important measure. It indicates that offence of rape is somehow different according by who is made. If it was made by to victim known person like cohabitee, husband, ex-cohabitee or ex-husband it should get lesser sentence than rape by stranger. Also it is suggested that domestic rape would be classified as assault and not as rape or indecent offence, because it is less harmful to the victim to be raped by husband than a stranger, and cohabitee or husband should get lesser sentence than stranger. Secondly, according to Prof. Williams all rapist can be put in two groups: present and former husbands and cohabitees on first instance and on second strangers and as I mentioned above Prof. Williams suggests that the former group should be treated more leniently, because its less horrific to the victim and strangers rapist is more dangerous to society. Helen Fenwick is very sceptic about these suggestions, he uses number of arguments, examples in order to prove it. Author does not support marital rights neither partial rights on the subject of domestic rape. In the first place, Fenwick denies merits of using ‘categorisation of rapists’ and uses very one sided examples of domestic rape, husband, and stranger rapists. Author has intention to show that domestic rape can be worse than stranger rape, because of the future consequence. Secondly, Fenwick is against ‘Re-Labelling of All Domestic Crimes’, he argues that it would bring anomalies and injustice and he is right because it requires major changes in domestic offences. Furthermore, author declares that provocation hardly can be working with rape offence, because a husband or cohabitee, who rapes unfaithful wife should be given some allowance. But on the other hand â€Å"Why not to extend such consideration to the distraught husband who beats up his unfai thful wife?†. In the end Fenwick talks about ‘Cohabitation as a mitigating factor in rape’. Author is against this assumption, because husband can be accused of rape, but sentenced on a different scale than stranger. There are some problems however, with Fenwick argument and his overall looking into Professors Glanville Williams articles. It seems that Fenwick is looking for demerits only and very sceptic about Prof. Williams proposals. Furthermore, it can be reasonably believed that when looking at Prof. Williams suggestions it possible to find merits. The court will consider all relationships between victim and offender, and it can hardly be said that it would not take into account when sentencing that when rape occurred the victim and accused was living together. Moreover, when Fenwick using examples of husband and stranger raping victim, he is using extremities. He shows the worst scenario of how husband rapes his wife, with the worst future consequences and he using example to st rengthen his opinion by showing us that stranger who rapes victim can be less harmful. Later he is trying to repair this position by saying that â€Å"I do not want to suggest that â€Å"stranger† rape is really cosy† and â€Å"it is well known that husbands and other members of the family sometimes find any rape hard to come to terms with and may blame the woman†. It reflects that he could use more objective examples. On the other hand, this article is really strong and persuasive. Authors arguments are well backup with creditable information, he is examining problems in depth. Rises proper questions to influence reader and to negate Prof. Williams proposals as it is true that these proposals if incorporated into law would not bring certainty and finality to it, it would bring anomalies and misunderstandings. Fenwick uses statistics to strengthen his position on point that most of the rape is made by people who is known to the victim, and so if Prof. Williams suggestions would be incorporated, it would bring ‘partial immunity’ to the most rapist and they would receive lessen crimes, like domestic assault and others. What is more, the text reflects the Helen Fenwick view and in that time recent decided case of R and Law Commission recommendations, which is mentioned in the article. As author is criticising the Prof. Williams articles it is necessary to say that all Fenwick criticism is justified. The article also respond directly to the points made by Prof. Williams and comes with results how these proposals would had changed law on domestic rape into negative side. It is worth to mention that Fenwick is using current practise and personal reflection to deal with this problem. I am quite sure that Helen Fenwick is right what he is trying to address to us and the key points is set out in easy and comprehensive language in order to access to reader. In the conclusion, Fenwick view is based on the modern policy and to give women more rights. It also says that the principle of irrevocable consent within marriage is not just and any proposals by Professor Glanville Williams is against women rights to dispose her body as she chooses. What I can say more, that I am of the same opinion as Fenwick and I think when read this article you should focus on the women rights. In 1990s the criminal law on rape was on the edge of changing. The principle, that at marriage woman gives irrevocable consent to have sex with husband, now is being challenged. There was strong public opinion that stranger rapist and husband rapist should be equal placed in the court room. Professor Glanville Williams in his article ‘The problem of domestic rape’ (141 NLJ 205); (141 NLJ 246); argues that husband should not be liable for ‘rape’ like stranger rapist for a number of reasons, which shall I discuss. In his article, Prof. Williams, is willing to affect changes in law on domestic rape topic. He argues that husband should be protected by exemption from domestic rape offence. Prof Williams gives further points to strengthen his position by saying that the principle of husband exemption from rape was standing for centuries, not only because it was a policy but also that husband do not deserve to be accused of rape. Spouses have long lasting relations hip and that for maybe one time when husband had not had a consent he is not worth be liable for the same offence as stranger rapist. Furthermore, after marital ‘rape’ couple can even be reconciled, and forget about that one incident and that domestic rape is far more less traumatic than stranger rapist. Moreover, Prof. Williams suggests that after abolishing exemption there is left to much protection for wife of criminal law in respect that at the marriage she accepts sexual relationship between her and husband. Another major concern of author is the sentencing problems which is against his view. Prof. Williams is of opinion that to punish husband for 3-5 years of imprisonment is too harsh. Author suggests that the sentence should be not about the years, but counting in days or even fine. Moreover, ‘compelling the woman to testify’ against his husband is not appropriate, for reason that woman can still feel love to her husband and this would be against her will to testify, but in our law now is contrary woman must testify. Prof. Williams uses an example to illustrate this by ‘In 1989 a wife who refused to testify against her husband in an assault case was fined by Newark magistrates for contempt of court. Author thinks that this is against family interests. Professor’s Glanville Williams arguments is very interesting and challenging the Criminal law on rape. Author is wide known, respected, honourable academic and his authority and validity seems to be able to influence Law Commission and other academics. He is using a lot of tools to affect the reader, start with involving the reader, where he is asking reader to image, think what he would be in the place of husband, and ending with appellation to conscience. Prof. Williams backups all of his arguments by using case law or articles or even interviews with people. Latter is really helpful to put more confidence in the article. As he has great authority so his reasoning is valid to the deep context of family relations. Author is supporting family welfare and put reconcilation as the strong argument that husband should have exemption from domestic rape. What is more, indeed is credible to rely on, as the reasoning this as I mentioned above, author is respected and honourable academic and if he would be so, we could not be influenced by his works. The last thing to say, but not least, is that the article is really well writen, it easy to read and understand. So it can affect general community. There are however some problems with Professor’s Williams arguments. It did not persuade me for a number of reasons. Let’s start with saying that the law should be equal to everyone who live within it. If Prof. Williams arguments would be accepted it is not right against, like he calls, ‘stranger rapist’. Why? For the reason, that the ‘stranger rapist’ not always is very horrific, and the future consequence might be more positive to victim, being raped by stranger. Despite the fact, that victim feels more horrific being raped by stranger than husband we can still perceive positive side. For example, when victim is raped by husband she cannot expect support from her family, also victim losses confidence in all men, no matter how good personality is man, he can still be able to do that horrible act. Now looking at the stranger who raped his victim, she gets full support from her close people and after a while she can get back confidence in herself and men. Moreover, it is women right to dispose her body as she wants and no husband can tell how she must act, the principle that husband has exemption is out-dated public policy. Furthermore, stranger as well as husband should have reasonable self-restraint level. So, to my mind, it is worth to have the same punishment for both wrongdoers, stranger and husband, because in the end the harm is done and offender must take the consequence of it. In relation, as Prof. Williams indicated, with ‘sentencing anomalies’ is very conflicting to law on sentencing. Author suggestion that downgrading domestic law to common assault would cause a lot of injustice into the law. It is the same to give privilege to one group of people and for other give more duties and severe sentences. This idea is step out of modern world, and denies the principle that all people should be equal to To consider all things mentioned above, it is clear that Professor Glanville Williams is respected and honourable academic, this article is written very well, it easy to read, comprehensive and credible. Despite this, his arguments is not walking a long side with modern world public pol icies and for this fact I do not agree with his article.

Group Behavior on Individual Workers †Psychology Essay

Group Behavior on Individual Workers – Psychology Essay Free Online Research Papers Group Behavior on Individual Workers Psychology Essay How can the existence of a group affect the behavior of the individual worker? Groups are found in all situations inside and outside the working environment, and play a large part in the everyday working of companies. If management wish to ensure they can influence the behavior of their employees, then they must be aware of and understand how groups work and what kind of impact they can have if not handled well. According to Mullins (2002) â€Å"Groups are a characteristic of all social situations and almost everyone in an organisation will be a member of one or more groups.† A popular definition of a group has been given in psychological terms by Schein (1988). He defines a group as â€Å"any number of people who (1) interact with one another; (2) are psychologically aware of one another; and (3) perceive themselves to be a group.† Another definition, provided by Adair (1986), is that a group is â€Å"a collection of people who share most, if not all, of the following characteristics: a definable membership; group consciousness; a sense of shared purpose; interdependence; interaction; and ability to act in a unitary manner.† There are a number of different types of group, whi ch can be classified under the following terms: primary group; secondary group; formal group; informal group; reference group; large group and; small group. Within primary groups each member will tend to know all of the other members and will interact on a faces of secondary groups may include department stores or factories, where the primary groups are individual departments or sections. Both primary and secondary groups can be perceived as formal or informal. It is stated by Mullins (2002) that â€Å"Formal groups are created to achieve specific organizational objectives and are concerned with the co-ordination of work activities† and that â€Å"Informal groups are based more on personal relationships and agreement of group members than on define role relationships. They serve to satisfy psychological and social needs not related necessarily to the tasks to be undertaken†. Reference groups are groups, which a person may identify with or aspire to, but they may never meet that group. This type of group can influence people who may not in any clear sense be a member of that group. Reference groups can also be either ascribed, of which membership is automatic, or acquired, where membership is voluntary. A board of directors within a company is an example of a reference group to an employee who wishes to advance their career within that company. When referring to the size of group, it is generally thought that if it exceeds a certain number of members its dynamic forces will lose much of their intensity. Depending on the context of the group that number may vary, but the usual dividing line between small and large groups is between fifteen and twenty. Four main phases of development of groups have been identified by Tucker (1965). These are forming, storming, norming and performing. The forming stage is the initial formation, where a number of individuals are brought together who identify the purpose of the group, what the rules of the group should be and what behavior is acceptable from members. During this stage there is thought given and importance placed on hierarchical structure and appointing a leader. It is likely that members will feel some anxiety as each member tries to make an impression and test each other, making their mark within the group. The storming stage is the second stage, during which the members of the group will get to know each other to a greater extent, and will be more likely to air their views more openly and even forcefully. Rebellion may be present against the leader of the group, with members resisting control exerted by others within the group, and conflicts and hostility arising. According to Mullins (2002) â€Å"The storming stage is important because, if successful, there will be discussions on reforming arrangements for the working and co-operation of the group, and agreement on more meaningful structures and procedures.† The third stage is the norming stage. During the norming stage cohesion develops between the group members and conflict and hostility begins to be overcome. Mullins (2002) states â€Å"The norming stage is important in establishing the need for members to co-operate in order to plan, agree standards of performance and fulfill the purpose of the group. This cooperation and adherence to group norms can work against effective organizational performance. It may be remembered, for example, that, in the bank wiring room experiment of the Hawthorne studies, group norms imposed a restriction on the level of output of the workers.† The Hawthorne studies will be mentioned later in this essay. The fourth stage of the group development is the performing stage, which will only be reached if the preceding three stages have been completed successfully. During this stage the group should be able to work effectively as a team, with optimum cohesiveness and flexible and functional roles. The energy, which was previously used through resisting demands and conflicting opinions, is now used to work together effectively. At this stage the group will perform their best work, concentrating on the common goals. Different types of groups may spend different amounts of time on each stage, with some groups never reaching the final stages. The personality and levels of dominance of each member may play a large part in the failure or success of the group and its ability to progress through the four stages mentioned above. Also, as time goes by and changes occur, such as new members joining the group or old members leaving, the group may re-enter the cycle and begin the development process all over again. In order to find out if the group members are working together effectively personality wise then the work of Jacob Moreno and his socio-grams can be useful if utilized correctly. Obviously there must be a successful working relationship between group members in order for them to succeed, but as well as having people with corresponding knowledg e and skills, it must be ensured that the team members are capable of dealing with each other on a personal and social level. If members are too dissimilar personality wise, then some members may clash, or others may feel left out, to the detriment of the group’s productivity and morale. Jacob Moreno developed socio-metry, which is the study of relationships within a group of people as a method of indicating group members’ feelings of acceptance or rejection. He began his research by asking people who their friends were and he explored the ways in which the relationships they had with others could be both limitations and opportunities for action as well as for their psychological behavior. Moreno invented socio-grams, which are the way in which the patterns of interpersonal relationships, which are derived from sociometry, are illustrated in diagrammatical form. Sociograms will show the choices and preferences, likes or dislikes, and the interactions between group memb ers, as well as displaying the structure of the group and recording how often the members are in contact with each other and for how long. Each member of the group will be asked to rate the other members in terms of a given characteristic. The questions asked could be relating to either work or social activities, for example one question could ask who they would most or least prefer as a colleague, and another may ask who they may choose to go on holiday with, and who would they choose not to go with. Some socio-grams require only positive answers, while others take into account positive and negative answers. When results are illustrated in diagrammatical form there is a clear visual description of the sociometric structure of the group, so it can be easily seen where cliques exist, or which members are popular or isolated, or those who act as links. There are several typical relationship structures, or sociometric representations, which can be seen in most socio-grams. Some of thes e are the star, which is the most popular member, the pair or mutual pair, a chain structure that is typical with most socio-grams and links the members through others, and a triangle, which shows that there is a clique within the group. As mentioned above, it is important that the group members get along with each other if the group is to succeed. If there are too many opposing personalities, or there are too many people with the same type of personality. For example of there are two or three members vying for the leadership role then they will be too busy competing for control over the group to perform at an acceptable level. If some members of the group form a clique, leaving individual members in isolation then there may be a decline in performance, as communication and group harmony will not be at the optimum level for maximum effective performance. Also, if the group is not communicating or getting along, they are unlikely to reach the final stages of group development as iden tified by Tucker (1965) which is mentioned earlier in this essay. The structuring of communication channels holds influence over the degree to which members of a group interact with each other. Levels of satisfaction felt by individual group members as well as group performance levels are affected by these interactions also. Dr Janet Bavelas researches communication networks within groups, to show who communicates with whom in a group and how the group structure can affect the speed of communication. The research by Bavelas (1948) and others such as Leavitt (1951) resulted in a series of communication networks being designed, which were based on groups consisting of five members who were engaged in a number of tasks. These members were only allowed to communicate with each other via written notes, and they were not always permitted to communicate with all other members. The five main types of communication network are the wheel, which may also be called the star, the circle, the all -channel, which is also referred to as the common, y, and chains. The wheel is the most centralized of the networks, and is therefore the most efficient for simple tasks. Using this network there will be fewer mistakes s there are fewer information flows, resulting in problems being solved more quickly. This method becomes less suitable however, as the problems become more complicated and the link person who is at the center of the network, and therefore perceived as leader of the group and co-coordinator of group tasks, has to cope with more demands. The link person will generally experience a higher level of satisfaction than the members on the periphery of the structure. The circle network is more decentralized and overall it is a less efficient method. Using this method tends to result in slow and erratic performance, with the group being less organized with low leadership predictability, as there is not one set link person. However, this method can be quicker than the centraliz ed methods at solving more complex problems and more effective and efficient at coping with changes and new tasks. All members will tend to feel the same level of job satisfaction using this method, as there is no link person to be perceived as leader, and every member will be involved equally in decision-making. The all-channel network is another decentralized network, which involves full participation and discussion, and appears to work most effectively when all members of the group are required to interact to a high degree with each other in order to solve the problems they are faced with. As with all decentralized networks there is low leadership predictability and equally high satisfaction for all members, although this type of network may not withstand much pressure, under which it may either disintegrate or be reformed into a wheel network. ‘Y’ or chain networks, like the wheel structure, may be more suited to simple problem-solving tasks, as they require less in teraction between group members. These networks are slightly more centralized, as information has a predetermined channel along which to flow, and leadership predictability is between that of the most centralized and decentralized networks. The group members’ satisfaction levels will be low to moderate using this network. According to Mullins (2002) â€Å"Findings from these studies indicate that the greater the interconnectedness of the network, the higher the general level of satisfaction of members in the group. Groups that were allowed to establish their own communication networks, and those who did so with the minimum of links, took less time to solve their tasks.† Norms, as defined by Jones and Gerard (1967) are â€Å"Expected modes of behavior and beliefs that are established either formally or informally by the group†¦Norms guide behavior and facilitate interaction by specifying the kinds of reactions expected or acceptable in a particular situation†. Taking this definition into account it is therefore reasonable to assume that group behavior can be constrained by some standards and expectations set. In 1935 Muzafer Sherif first published his study, which set his subjects a simple perceptual task, to be completed first by individuals, and then by small groups. The judgments made and behavior shown by the individuals was different to those made when the groups were involved and allowed to exchange information on judgments. It was shown that where group norms emerged these were used by the group members when later tested individually, indicating that that group norms become relatively permanent, although few of the subjects were consciously aware that their judgments had been influenced by the others in the group. The concept of norms is important when studying conformity and deviance, which is discussed below in terms of studies by Asch (1956) Asch had nine volunteers to take part in what they understood to be a perception expe riment. The task they were given was to judge which of three lines of different length were the same length as the standard line. The answer in all cases was obvious. When each subject was alone, neither of them made mistakes, however on certain trials one subject was asked to give his answer after a unanimously false majority, who chose an obviously false answer. In the results of the experiments thirty two per cent of all of the judgments were wrong, thirty three of the subjects conformed on more than half of the trials, and only twenty five per cent of the subjects were unaffected by the group pressure. Very few of the subjects later admitted to disliking the idea of contradicting the group. Through his studies Asch also noted that the higher the number of members in the group, the higher the level of conformity. One of the main reasons that people in groups conform can be to enable decisions to be made. This is also the case where deviance is concerned. People may question the f irst suggestions of the group so that better decisions can be reached, as it is doubtful that the first suggestion will be the best one. However, deviance can lead to conflict within groups. This conflict can either be constructive, where group members carefully weigh the strengths and weaknesses of proposals, or destructive conflict which occurs when members do not have the best interest of the group in mind, such as during a power struggle or personality dispute. If groups have effective structures and communication strategies, then they will be a success, and being part of a successful group will benefit individuals in terms of morale, as their social motives, such as their needs for security, friendship and belonging. The organization will benefit through its profit levels and through low staff turnover and customer complaints if the groups in place within the company. Also, if the groups within the company are operating efficiently, then Gestalt’s Principle of Synergy wi ll operate. The Oxford Dictionary definition of synergy is â€Å"The interaction or cooperation of two or more organizations, substances, or other agents to produce a combined effect greater than the sum of their separate effects†. This is the basis of the principle of synergy, where if the group is effective in its workings, then its productivity and worth as a group is greater than each individual group member could achieve when working on their own. However this theory can also work in reverse; if the group were not working effectively, then the productivity levels would be greater if each person was working on an individual level. This is particularly illustrated by the findings of the Hawthorne experiments, which are explained below. It sometimes occurs that group membership can have a negative effect on productivity, which is clearly illustrated in the Hawthorne experiments, which were carried out at the Western Electric Company in America. One of these experiments cons isted of a group of fourteen men being observed while working in the bank wiring room. These men formed their own cliques with members consenting to natural leaders emerging. Despite the fact that management had introduced a financial incentive scheme which allowed the men to receive more money if they produced more work, the group decided that a fair level of output was six thousand units per day, although they were able to produce much more. The group placed pressure on individual workers, which was stronger than the appeal of the financial incentive scheme. The work group developed their own set of norms relating to what they considered to be proper group behavior. These were that group members should not be ‘rate busters’, ‘chisellers’, ‘squealers’, or ‘officious’. A ‘rate-buster’ was someone who had a rate of output that the group considered too high according to the level they had set for combined output. A †˜chiseller’ was someone whose production levels were too low compared with the other group members. To avoid being thought of as a ‘squealer’ the members were not allowed to say anything to the manager or supervisor which might harm the other group members, and being ‘officious’ would be someone who had authority over the other members taking advantage of this seniority or distancing themselves socially from the group because of their seniority. The group had developed its own range of sanctions in case any members did not conform to the norms that had been set. These sanctions included damaging completed work, hiding tools, sarcasm, playing pranks on inspectors, and ostracizing the members who refused to conform. They also made threats of physical violence, with the group also developing a system to punish offenders by striking a hard blow on the upper part of the arm, which they called ‘binging’. This method was also used as a means t o control conflict within the group. The group also decided that instead of allowing their supervisor to report their individual daily production figures, they did the reporting themselves, which the supervisor consented to in order to keep in the groups favor. It is apparent from the content of this essay that groups can have either a positive or a negative effect on individuals, whether relating to their production or on a personal level. Individuals who feel they have to conform to group norms may feel a sense of belonging within the group, and if the group norms are demanding that the group work effectively and fairly then they will feel motivated also. However, f some individuals are feeling bullied into following unacceptable norms, then their work will suffer as will their self-esteem and feeling of worth. This will inevitably lead to poor production and staff turnover levels increasing. Organizations should pay careful attention to the personality types of the individuals th ey wish to place together in a team to avoid conflict and to ensure the group performs effectively. Social Network Analysis: A Handbook. John Scott (1996) Management and Organizational Behavior Mullins (2002) Foundations of Social Psychology Jones and Gerard (1967) Leadership in Group Settings The definition of a small group is a group having at least three and no more than fifteen members. At least three members are necessary to keep the group from being two of the same, and a maximum of fifteen members is important to avoid inhibition of the group members’ ability to freely communicate with fellow group members. (Effective Group Discussion 2001) It is necessary for the group to have a common purpose or goal in order to bring the group together and help the group to avoid conflict and tension. Small group communication is an important part of everyday life. We are all involved in some type of small group in some way. In all aspects of the dynamics of a small group, this is a perfect example of how important communication is. According to Merriam-Websters Dictionary online, Group dynamics is the interacting forces within a small human group. (www.merriam-webster.com , 2000) It includes the sociological study of these forces. The term was first introduced in the U.S. by the German-American psychologist Kurt Lewin. One of his findings was that group behavior affects many aspects of life. Group dynamics is concerned with the structure and functioning of groups and with the types of roles played by members. Roles are flexible and may change with changing goals or activities. The study of group dynamics is important in order to understand and facilitate this movement so that it will be productive and beneficial to society. â€Å"The group seems to have developed effective mechanisms to control the disruptive rising of conflicts and the ability to enhance more harmonic relationships, heightening the original good characteristics and sharing a common ideal of social harmony.† (The dynamics and the interpersonal and interpersonal relations within an isolated group in extreme environments 2000) In the following paragraphs, information and examples is presented on how groups form, how they are motivated, and how they can be put into two distinct classifications. Groups are caused by various factors, but are broken up into two distinct categories, voluntary groups and involuntary groups. Each group has many separate categories that can be explored. However, the difference between voluntary and involuntary groups will be exploited first. Voluntary groups are those in which an individual chooses to become a part of such as: hobbies, political action, social consciousness, racial rights or special interest groups. People become members of these groups to feel accepted in society. Sometimes these groups cause hatred and conflict amongst other groups, yet members remain because they feel their cause is just. On the other hand, involuntary groups are compulsory in that the members have no choice in their formation. (Leadership Emergence in Autonomous Work Teams 1999) For instance, a person may have a job in which they have been assigned to a group to work out a difficult issue. In this group a supervis or chooses a select few to research a component and provide solutions to better improve the efficiency. The members did not choose to be a part of the group. They were simply appointed based on a number of factors the supervisor found important to solving the issue at hand. Whatever the reason a group may form, they all have similar workings. Every group has leaders and followers. Directions, goals, and requirements are defined and at some point in time the behavior of the group is formed. The group sets goals to achieve an acceptable outcome within the scope of the group. It then organizes itself to obtain the outcome as easily as possible. Over a period of time the members may even become dependent upon one another to the point that they may feel lost without the group and feel inadequate. These groups can be categorized into two distinct categories; formal and informal. Formal groups include quality circles, decision making meetings, orientations, training, department meetings, a dvisory councils and sales meetings, to name a few. (Leaderships and innovations among teams 1997) Informal groups include social activities outside the office, luncheons, coffee breaks, informal meetings, retreats and gripe sessions. These discussion encounters often provide a platform for individuals to voice their opinions on a subject or to pass on information they have received. Both formal and informal groups have a synergistic effect, strengthen an organization. Every one of these groups are motivated to complete their cause. The motivation is generally driven by one or a few individuals that are outgoing and have the ability to lead a group with total confidence given by the other members. But, what exactly is â€Å"leadership†. According to our context, leadership can be defined as the â€Å"interpersonal influence† or human communication that modifies, directs, guides, and controls others in such a way as to obtain their willing obedience, confidence, respect and loyal cooperation in accomplishment of an objective. (Effective Group Discussion 2001) Leaders are not born, sure there are some gifts-traits-attributes, natural endowments that affect relative abilities, but they are not born, they are made. Any reasonably intelligent person with enough forcefulness to develop his/her ability to inspire others to follow him can earn leadership status. Remember that we have both formal and informal leaders. Being a Captain /Sergeant doesn’t make you a leader. J Patrick Dobel refers to classic leadership theory because it describes an approach to understanding leadership that by and large is out of style. Nonetheless it is clear that one can learn a great deal by studying the important personal ingredients in the leadership equation. (Political prudence and the ethics of leadership 1998) Studying the traits of great leaders became unpopular because it was and is associated with the â€Å"great man† theory of leadership. This approa ch was espoused in the 19th. and early 20th centuries, and asserted the leadership qualities are largely inherited. This was called â€Å"trait theory.† Researchers such as Mann and Stodgill found no consistent correlate between particular traits and leadership. Later research, particularly more recent and more sophisticated work has found a consistent and strong relationship between certain traits and leadership. (Leadership Emergence in Autonomous Work Teams 1999) Possessing these core traits simply makes it more likely that a person will take the appropriate action leading to leadership success. What is the nature of leadership? Leadership is an art form in that is an expression of the individual within the social and environmental context. Leadership also reflects the individual’s personality. It can also be learned; you may have a talent for it, you may not, either way, anyone can still become an effective leader. Through science, we can study the elements of lead ership and provide valuable understanding into its nature. This enables us to determine where to focus our leadership skills and abilities, as well as measure to some extent, our effectiveness. Many people believe that there is one type of leadership that is most effective, and if they can only develop that style, they would be effective as a leader. (Leadership Emergence in Autonomous Work Teams 1999) Some leaders have one style, and honestly believe that it is best to stick with what comes naturally. As with any art form, one has a number of tools at one’s disposal. Take for example the ability to listen and the listening effectiveness of the group members. A good leader is supposed to always be an active listener. Active listening shows that the leader cares, is interested and wants to be involved, enabling the leader to benefit from the experience. Listening skills are â€Å"far superior† in leaders, compared to all the other members of the group. (Examining the Re lationship Between Listening Effectiveness and Leadership Emergence 1998) The primary objective of a leader would be to adapt the principles of listening into their own life. If the leader is not a good listener, then he/she should learn how to really listen. In addition to listening and carefully understanding what a team member is saying, a leader should also make sure that every team member gets the leaders undivided attention. Unfortunately, as a listener, leaders have their own problems to face with. Listeners frequently have too many sound and visual signals reaching them at the same time. It is difficult for the listener to pay attention to multiple speakers all at once. Also, there could be a number of other problems the leader could be facing in their own life. The leader as a listener will never listen with understanding until other matters are forgotten for the moment and attention is given to the speaker. Another problem involved with listening is the leader not being ab le to understand the words being spoken. Hearing what is being spoken is just a part of listening, but understanding some of the words could be tricky sometimes. To avoid problems involving listening, the listener should use good eye contact so that he/she can concentrate on the particular speaker. That helps the listener pay attention on the subject too. Leader should also learn the meaning of the words the speaker is using and if he is unable to understand, he needs to ask questions. This also lets the speaker know that the listener is unable to understand and the listener is paying attention. These are signs of effective communication It is critical that good group leaders display the ability to effectively communicate with their associates and subordinates as well as train and encourages others to demonstrate those same communication skills. By doing so, they will promote an efficient working environment for solving tasks. The first challenge in effectively communicating with ot her people understands other different people. Because everyone is different from one another, the communication barriers start to appear. People are already facing differences from many levels of society. And with every new group that enters into the society, there are still the cultural differences such as traditions, beliefs, and expectations that are thrown into the mix as well. All of this, as well as many other issues only further complicates the task of achieving effective group communications. Perhaps the most obvious difference in the current group environment is the difference of the sex. (Are We Still Stereotyping Leadership 1997) Women possess a tendency to be more subtle or convincing rather than shouting out demands. Studies have shown that women are more likely to construct their requests in the form of suggestions or leading questions rather than be more direct. The conflict is evident if one considers the fact that males possess the complete opposite tendency. Men a re more â€Å"masculine† and are often more direct and to the point. These two contrasting different can cause lots of misunderstandings of all sorts. Women also do not hesitate to mix business with personal talk where men are more anxious to get to the details of the business at hand. For women this seems to be a double-edged sword. On the one hand, the personal talk brings down some barriers and lets each one get to know the other so everyone is comfortable. This works in their favor in situations where they are meeting a group or individual for the first time. But on the other hand, after they become acquainted, they may have trouble separating their personal feelings and allowing them to enter into their business talk as well as their daily business activities. These types of preconceived notions are also present for every race and culture on the planet and they differ from culture to culture for each other. It is very difficult but even more important for today leaders t o put these preconceived notions to rest. One must remember that just because a person looks like Chinese, that it is possible that they have never even been to China. If this is true, they may be offended if someone was to treat them noticeably different or assume that they did not know how to do something. Even though a person has not told these thoughts, their actions can communicate these thoughts just as effectively. This is just one of the many types of subtle communication in which all people notice. It is imperative that people treat others based on merit rather than assumptions made on their looks or backgrounds. A multicultural environment is an asset only if each individual is treated equally and fair as the others. As team members witness their leader treating everyone with equality and fairness, they will be more inclined to emulate these actions with one another. (Leadership and Innovation Among Teams 1997) This will in turn help the group to value diversity and develo p creative problem solving skills. As conditions and situations change, leaders need to change their styles of leadership. The challenge of the leader is not to follow one leadership style all the time, but to use the leadership style needed by his followers. Leaders should maintain the power or influence of their offices by being kind and knowledgeable. The primary objective of being the leader would be to recognize the qualities necessary for a leader to be successful. Leader should be able to recognize various leadership styles and understand when each would be appropriate. Sometimes a leader will have to follow their group member and in such situations the good leader will appreciate the leadership, while serving the role of a follower. Leaders often have trouble deciding what leadership style to be used at what given instance. Another problem with leaders is that some leaders tend to follow the same leadership principles all the time and this is not a good idea to tackle specia l situations. The leader must not consider himself locked into a style of leadership with any individual or group. To avoid problems leaders should always act accordingly and change leadership skills depending on the situation and need. At the same time leader should be confident enough to be able to deal with the new skills. Every group needs a leader and the groups performance depends on the leader either directly or indirectly. The behavior as a manager has a direct impact on staff performance, productivity, satisfaction, and turnover. Proper Leadership skills are highly essential for a manager to make his/her group successful. The leadership principles mentioned in this paper are just a simple guideline for leaders to follow; however, a good leader does not require any guidelines. A good leader inherits leadership qualities by inheritance of leadership abilities and characteristics from their own life. But in small group setting, a good leader doesn’t know that he has the ability to use these characteristics. Not until the others members give that person a chance to â€Å"emerge† as a leader. (Leadership Emergence in Autonomous Work Teams 1999) Leader emergence occurs in autonomous, or leaderless, work groups when one members of that group exerts â€Å"significant influence over the other members of the group although no formal authority has been vested in that person.†(Leadership Emergence in Autonomous Work Teams 1999) Such people emerge from the autonomous group when members sense an urgency, time constraint, to produce out put. Since the group started off leaderless and is now forced to produce output, the emergent leader will take charge with out developing trust, or respect for others and others feelings. When the work group send a peer expectations for leadership, through a negotiated process the emerging leader will reinforce those expectations by exhibiting effective leadership behavior, but only if he/she is willing and capab le of doing the job. In conclusion, there are certain laws of leadership that determine one’s success in leading. If you violate or ignore them, then you will severely limit your effectiveness as a leader. These laws are the foundation of leadership, yet you will not find them in any university curriculum. These principles are best learned from experience. Once you learn the principles, you must consistently practice and apply them to your situation. True leadership cannot be awarded, appointed, or assigned. It comes only from influence, and that can’t be mandated; it must be earned. Leadership is about influencing people to follow, while management focuses on maintaining systems and processes. The best way to test whether a person can lead rather than just manage is to ask him to create positive change. Managers can maintain direction, but they can’t change it. Hard work is required to gain influence in any organization and to earn the right to become the leade r. If you can’t influence others, they won’t follow you. And if they won’t follow, you’re not a leader. Leadership is developed daily, not in a day. To be an effective leader you need followers, and that always requires the development of relationships – the deeper the relationships, the stronger the potential for leadership. William, J.B. William, J.B. (1998). Leadership and innovations among teams. J Patrick Dobel, â€Å"Political Prudence and the Ethics of Leadership,† Small Group Research 58, no.1 (Jan/Feb 1998): 74-81 Judith A Kolb, â€Å"Are We Still Stereotyping Leadership,† Small Group Research 28, no.3 (Aug 1997): 370-393 Simon Taggar, Rick Hackett, Sudhir Saha, â€Å"Leadership in Autonomous Work Teams,† Personnel Psychology 52, no.3-4 (Autumn 1999): 899-926 Scott D Johnson, Curt Bechler, â€Å"Examining the Relationship Between Listening Effectiveness and Leadership Emergence,† Small Group Research 29, no.4 (Aug1998): 452-471 Antonio Peri, Marta Barbarito, Matilde Barattoni, Ada Abraham, â€Å"The Dynamics and the Interpersonal Relations† Small Group Research 31, no.3 (June 2000): 251-274 WWW.merriam-webster.com , visited 12/04/01 John K Brilhart, Gloria J. 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